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This page provides basic information on assertiveness training including self-help books, clinical texts for therapists, and a sample of relevant research studies.

Some Recommended Books on Assertiveness

• Conditioned Reflex Therapy (1949/2001) by Andrew Salter
  Probably the first book on assertiveness training, or "excitatory" therapy as Salter called it.
• Your Perfect Right (1970/2008) by Robert E. Alberti and Michael L. Emmons
  Probably the most popular book on assertiveness, now in its ninth edition.
• The Assertive Option (1978) by A.J. Lange & P. Jakubowski.
  Another popular self-help book on assertiveness which provides many practical exercises.
• The Practice of Behaviour Therapy (1969/1991) by Joseph Wolpe
  Mainly of interest to therapists.  Wolpe developed Salter's work into the foundations of behaviour therapy and introduced the term "assertiveness".
• Assertiveness Step by Step: Overcoming Common Problems (2004) by Windy Dryden & Daniel Constantinou
  A recent introduction to assertiveness from the perspective of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT).
• Difficult Conversations (1999) by Douglas Stone, Bruce Patton & Sheila Heen
  A bestseller on negotiation from the Harvard Negotiation Project.
• A Woman in Your own Right (1982) by Anne Dickson
  One of the most popular books on assertiveness for women.
• The Assertive Option (1878) by Arthur J. Lange & Patricia Jakubowski
  Another popular self-help book using on REBT for assertiveness training.

Some Relevant Research Studies

• 'Behaviour rehearsal vs. non-directive therapy vs. advice in effecting behaviour change', Arnold A. Lazarus
  Behaviour Research & Therapy, 1966, Aug;4(3): 209-12.
  Probably the first ever outcome study on assertiveness training.  Lazarus found that 92% of participants benefited from assertiveness training involving behavioural rehearsal, compared with 44% of clients receiving direct advice only or 32% of those who received non-directive therapy.
• 'Covert and overt rehearsal and homework practice in developing assertiveness', Alan E. Kazdin & Sally Mascitelli
  Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Vol 50(2), Apr 1982, 250-258.
  79 subjects were tested using behavioural rehearsal and modelling for assertiveness training with or without homework assignments.  Subjects who practised homework assignments or engaged in behavioural rehearsal consistently made more improvements to their assertiveness than those who did not.
• 'Imagery elaboration and self-efficacy in the covert modeling treatment of unassertive behavior', Alan E. Kazdin
  Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Vol 47(4), Aug 1979, 725-733.
  48 subjects were tested using different variations of covert modelling techniques.  Covert modelling with imagery elaboration led to the greatest improvement in assertiveness.
• 'Covert modeling, imagery assessment, and assertive behavior', Alan E. Kazdin
  Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology. Vol 43(5), Oct 1975, 716-724.
  54 subjects were tested using a variety of imagery techniques.  Modelling imagery was more effective when several different models were pictured and models were pictured being rewarded for assertive behaviour.
• 'Effects of covert modeling and model reinforcement on assertive behavior', Alan E. Kazdin
  Journal of Abnormal Psychology. Vol 83(3), Jun 1974, 240-252. 
  45 subjects were compared in different treatment groups.  It was found that best results were achieved when subjects pictured a model behaving assertively and being rewarded for doing so.  Picturing a model without reference to rewarding consequences was also of some benefit, and both were superior to picturing other scenes or no treatment.

Some useful resources

• "Assertiveness" results on PubMed database.
• Assertiveness guide on BBC website.
• UKassertiveness discussion forum.

Assertiveness training was first introduced by the hypnotherapist,
Andrew Salter, in his book Conditioned Reflex Therapy (1949).